Nigerian journalism under the digital and democratic crossfire
Mr. Vice Chancellor, sir, [and, by the way, a fellow Great Ife-ite], principal officers, staff and students at this august university, I should begin with a statement of gratitude for your kind invitation. In doing this, please also allow me to offer a very affectionate appreciation to my friend and professional brother, the dean of the faculty, Professor Muyiwa Popoola who made it impossible to say no when the idea of hosting this conversation was first broached.
It is a privilege to stand before you today, and I’d like to share a key motivation for my presence here. In 2014, four years after its founding, Premium Times, the newspaper where I work, embarked on a bold journey to expand its mission. It established West Africa’s first not-for-profit newsroom, the Premium Times Centre for Investigative Journalism (PTCIJ). In 2022, this center rebranded as the Centre for Journalism Innovation and Development (CJID), reflecting its broader commitment to advancing journalistic innovation and development across the region.
The CJID was born with a clear purpose: to reimagine the future of Nigerian journalism. It sought to innovate how news is reported, consumed, and financed. At the time, the Nigerian media landscape was in disarray. Public trust—the lifeblood of journalism—was at an all-time low. Professional standards had eroded, and the business model sustaining journalism had grown stagnant and unsustainable.
This crisis inspired me to undertake an ongoing comparative study of the newspaper press in West Africa, particularly in Anglophone countries. I wanted to understand how Nigeria’s media challenges compared to those of its regional peers. Naturally, my research led me to Sierra Leone, the birthplace of Africa’s first English-language press in 1801. It was here that I forged a profound connection with the legacy of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, the towering figure whose name graces this esteemed university.
Returning here today, I am reminded of the pivotal role that great historical figures play in inspiring us to build not only consequential dreams and monuments, but, independent, democratic societies. Students of this university, I imagine, walk with pride, knowing they share an identity with one of Africa’s greatest minds. Those in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies, however, may feel a particular and special kinship with Crowther’s legacy.
While Crowther is best known for his linguistic work, is Bible translations, and educational initiatives, his contributions indirectly shaped the intellectual and cultural environment that nurtured the early press in Sierra Leone, Lagos, the Niger Delta, and, to a lesser extent, Ghana. His efforts in education—including founding Africa’s first girls’ secondary school—promoted a harmonious blend of indigenous identity and global influences. This laid a foundation for the libertarian ideals that defined the vibrant, modern press of 19th-century Lagos and fueled the nationalist fervor of figures like his grandson, Herbert Macaulay, a leading voice in Nigeria’s anti-colonial struggle and journalism.
One lesser-known aspect of Crowther’s legacy holds special relevance for journalism students. In 1866, he partnered with Captain James Pinson Labulo Davies to establish what they called The Academy, a social and cultural center dedicated to public enlightenment. This institution served as a public square of sorts, where citizens could engage in intellectual discourse, voice their concerns, and critique the issues of their time. Such spaces were vital to the development of a free press and remain indispensable to the accountability motif Nigerian journalism still plays in our ongoing struggle for substantive independence and democracy.
For me therefore, Crowther holds profound significance as a symbolic figure in the imagination of West Africans, embodying resilience, intellectual achievement, cultural bridge-building, and African agency in the face of adversity. He, indeed, offered a powerful narrative of transformation, from enslavement to becoming the first African Anglican bishop, a linguist, and a missionary pioneer who helped transformed the literacy landscape in Igbo, Nupe, and Yoruba societies in their quest for modernity.
The evolution of journalism in Nigeria
The evolution of journalism in Nigeria is deeply connected to the trajectory of its democracy. Like many other parts of the Global South, journalism in Nigeria serves as a critical institution for advancing democratic norms and practices. It fulfils indispensable functions, including information dissemination, accountability promotion, representation of marginalised groups, agenda setting for development issues, provisioning of gatekeeping roles, and facilitation of civic debate. At the same time, journalism in Nigeria faces persistent and emerging threats emanating from political, economic, and technological developments both within and beyond national borders. The state of journalism in Nigeria is not only a professional concern but also an indicator of the health of democratic governance, the vibrancy of civic space, and the broader political culture.
Journalism as a democratic imperative
Journalism is widely regarded as the “fourth estate,” underscoring its status as a foundational institution in democratic societies. This representation reflects the critical role journalism plays in sustaining democracy by providing citizens with the information and interpretive frameworks they need to participate meaningfully in public and civic life. Journalism informs citizens, scrutinises power, gives voice to marginalised groups, and creates spaces for collective deliberation. These functions help ensure that governments remain accountable to the people they govern, and that public discourse remains inclusive and vibrant. The democratic imperative of journalism can be delineated into four interrelated and mutually reinforcing roles:
Information dissemination
At its core, journalism provides the public with verified, credible, and timely information. In doing so, it enables citizens to make informed decisions about matters of governance, policy, and social life. Through rigorous newsgathering, fact-checking, and interpretive reporting, journalism enhances public understanding of complex issues, mitigates the spread of misinformation, and contributes to the transparency of political and economic processes. Information dissemination is not merely about the transmission of facts but also about providing context, explanation, and analysis that enable audiences to grasp the significance of events and decisions.
Accountability and watchdog role
Journalism fulfils a watchdog function by investigating and exposing abuses of power, corruption, human rights violations, and other forms of misconduct by state and non-state actors. By shining light on the actions of those in authority, journalism promotes transparency and deters impunity. Investigative reporting can catalyse policy reforms, legal action, and social mobilisation by revealing wrongdoing that would otherwise remain hidden from public view. In this role, journalism serves as an institutional check on power, reinforcing the principle that no individual or institution is above scrutiny.
Representation
Journalism also plays an essential role in amplifying the voices of marginalised, underserved, or otherwise excluded social groups. By covering issues that affect these communities and providing them with a platform to articulate their concerns, journalism helps expand the boundaries of public discourse, ensuring that diverse perspectives are heard. This representational function of journalism contributes to social inclusion and challenges dominant narratives. It enables broader participation in democratic processes by communities that are often relegated to the peripheries of political and social life.
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Deliberation
Finally, journalism fosters deliberation by creating fora for civic discussion, debate, and negotiation over public issues. Through opinion columns, debates, editorials, letters to the editor, and interactive platforms, journalism provides spaces where competing viewpoints can be expressed, contested, and refined. This deliberative function strengthens democratic culture by encouraging critical thinking, tolerance for dissent, and collective problem-solving.
These roles are neither static nor uncontested. Journalism does not operate in a vacuum; its ability to perform these democratic functions is contingent upon, and continually shaped by, broader political, economic, social, and technological conditions. Political environments characterised by authoritarianism, censorship, or violence constrain journalistic freedom and independence. Economic pressures, including the collapse of traditional business models and increasing precarity for journalists, can undermine editorial integrity and limit investigative capacity. Technological developments, while enabling faster and wider dissemination of information, also create new vulnerabilities such as algorithmic manipulation, surveillance, and the rapid spread of disinformation.
In summary, journalism serves as both a mirror and a motor of democracy, reflecting societal conditions while also helping to shape them. Its effectiveness as a democratic institution depends not only on the professional ethos and practices of journalists but also on the legal, institutional, and normative environments within which they operate. Protecting and strengthening journalism is therefore indispensable to the preservation and deepening of democratic governance.
Historical context: The roots of Nigerian journalism
The colonial genesis
The origins of modern journalism in Nigeria can be traced to the mid-nineteenth century, specifically to the year 1859, when Reverend Henry Townsend, a missionary of the Church Missionary Society, established Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Ara Egba Ati Yoruba in Abeokuta. This publication, which translates roughly to The Newspaper for the Egba and Yoruba People, is widely regarded as Nigeria’s first newspaper. Townsend’s vision for Iwe Irohin extended beyond the simple dissemination of news; he conceived it as a tool for advancing literacy, promoting Christian evangelism, and fostering civic education among the Yoruba people. In its pages, readers encountered a blend of religious instruction, reports of local and foreign events, and moral and educational commentary, reflecting Townsend’s intertwined religious and pedagogical aims.
By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the medium of print had been appropriated by emerging Nigerian elites, who recognised its potential as an instrument of political advocacy and social mobilisation. Publications such as The Lagos Weekly Record and The Nigerian Chronicle, founded by educated Africans, became platforms through which local intellectuals, professionals, and activists articulated grievances against colonial policies and pressed for reforms. The press thus became a site where literacy, elite identity, and political consciousness intersected, fostering an incipient sense of nationalism and collective agency.
Journalism as anti-colonial resistance
During British colonial rule, journalism evolved into a significant arena for political contestation and nationalist agitation. Prominent figures such as Herbert Macaulay, often regarded as the father of Nigerian nationalism, used newspapers to articulate opposition to colonial exploitation and racial discrimination. Macaulay’s publications were instrumental in shaping public opinion, galvanising resistance to unjust policies, and articulating alternative political visions.
In the early to mid-twentieth century, this tradition was carried forward by influential journalists and politicians, such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, whose West African Pilot became a leading nationalist voice, and Obafemi Awolowo, whose Nigerian Tribune contributed to the ideological and organisational foundations of nationalist movements. Newspapers during this period played a dual role: on one hand, they were tools of political mobilisation and resistance, giving voice to anti-colonial sentiments and aspirations for self-rule; on the other hand, they also functioned as forums for cultural affirmation and the reassertion of African identities in the face of colonial denigration.
These publications were not confined to urban centres alone; they cultivated audiences across regions and social classes, making journalism a key medium of mass political education and mobilisation. The press thus became central to the emergence of modern Nigerian nationalism, providing an enduring template for media as a site of political struggle.
Post-independence and military dictatorships
Following independence in 1960, journalism initially experienced a period of relative flourishing. Under Nigeria’s First Republic, the press enjoyed a measure of freedom and diversity, reflecting the pluralistic aspirations of the newly sovereign state. Newspapers, radio, and later television became arenas for public debate, political competition, and social commentary.
However, the military coup of 1966 and the subsequent civil war (1967–1970), marked the beginning of an era of authoritarian repression. Successive military regimes perceived the press as a potential threat to their authority and sought to curb its influence through censorship, arbitrary detentions, and the closure of critical outlets. Journalists became frequent targets of harassment, surveillance, imprisonment, and even physical violence.
The assassination of Dele Giwa, editor-in-chief of NewsWatch, in 1986 by a parcel bomb remains one of the most chilling episodes in Nigerian media history, symbolising the extreme lengths to which state actors could go to silence critical voices. Despite these challenges, journalists and media organisations demonstrated remarkable resilience, adopting strategies such as producing underground or clandestine publications, publishing abroad, and forging alliances with international media and advocacy organisations to sustain critical reportage.
In Nigeria’s inspiring journey to end three decades of military rule and embrace democracy, the news media played a vital role, giving rise to bold terms like “guerrilla journalism” in the nation’s media history. A notable moment in this struggle was the dramatic 1992 episode under General Ibrahim Babangida’s regime, when nearly two dozen newspapers were banned, and five strict decrees were introduced to stifle dissent. For example, Decree 29 threatened harsh penalties for statements that could spark social unrest, Decree 48 shut down 17 news outlets for questioning the regime’s authority, Decree 35 allowed the president to seize or ban publications, and Decree 43 set nearly impossible standards for newspaper registration. Despite these challenges, the media’s resilience shone through in the fight for democratic restoration.
The return to democracy (1999–present)
Since the 1990s, Nigeria has witnessed a dynamic newspaper landscape, with established print dailies such as The Guardian, Punch, Vanguard, ThisDay, National Concord [now defunct], Daily Trust, The Nation, and Nigerian Tribune maintaining prominence. The restoration of civilian rule in 1999 marked the beginning of a new chapter for Nigerian journalism. The transition to democracy created a more enabling environment for press freedom, leading to the proliferation of private radio and television stations, independent newspapers, and digital platforms. Investigative journalism experienced a revival, exemplified by the establishment of platforms such as Premium Times, The Cable, and Sahara Reporters, which focused on uncovering corruption, abuses of power, and human rights violations.
Simultaneously, civil society organisations such as the Centre for Journalism Innovation and Development (CJID) — a media innovation and accountability think tank known for initiatives like DUBAWA and DAIDAC (thecjid.org) — Media Rights Agenda (MRA) — an independent NGO advocating media freedom and digital rights since 1993 (mediarightsagenda.org) — and the Socio‑Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP) — a public interest group advancing anti‑corruption, transparency, and press freedom (serap-nigeria.org) — have played central roles in defending journalistic freedoms and challenging state overreach. Since 2010, additional organisations have emerged or expanded their influence, including the Paradigm Initiative (PIN), which focuses on digital rights and inclusion (paradigmhq.org); BudgIT, which uses civic technology to promote fiscal transparency and public accountability (yourbudgit.com); and Enough is Enough Nigeria (EiE), a youth‑led movement for good governance, electoral participation, and free expression (eienigeria.org).
Furthermore, specialised journalism support institutions such as the International Centre for Investigative Reporting (ICIR) — advancing investigative journalism and capacity‑building (icirnigeria.org); the International Press Centre (IPC) — promoting press freedom, safety of journalists, and professional standards (ipcng.org); and the Wole Soyinka Centre for Investigative Journalism (WSCIJ) — dedicated to investigative reporting and accountability journalism through awards, training, and mentorship (wscij.org) — have become indispensable pillars of Nigeria’s evolving media and civic advocacy ecosystem. They are key actors in advocating for media freedom, supporting journalists through legal aid and training, and promoting accountability in governance.
Nevertheless, the democratic transition did not fully resolve the tension between the state and the press. Regulatory overreach, exemplified by punitive actions of the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), legal harassment under broadly defined cybercrime laws, and episodes of intimidation and violence against journalists persist. Ownership of media outlets by political and economic elites also continues to compromise editorial independence.
The historical trajectory of Nigerian journalism thus reflects a complex interplay of resilience and repression, innovation and constraint, reflecting the broader struggles of Nigerian society to realize its democratic aspirations. Our news media’s history reveals its potential not only as a chronicler of events but also as an active participant in shaping the nation’s political, social, and cultural development.
The digital era: disruptive transformations
The internet revolution
From about the middle of the 1990s something different was beginning to take shape in Nigeria. This was the arrival of a new age, the information age, where the production, the storage, and the processing of information would become the foundation and central definition of social, economic, and political life – we arrived at what would be called the digital society.
This new digital society, meant, in essence, the widespread use of technology, digital communication, and the Internet. It started revolutionising the way we work, communicate, and access information, leading to increased connectivity and globalization. From the perspective of the news media, this would also be the total transformation of the way we cover and distribute news as well as how we finance the enterprise of journalism. This would be the most transformative development in a little over a quarter of a century in the history of our news media.
This emergent digital moment confronted a Nigerian news industry that was slumbering through an existential crisis occasioned, in part, by the decimation it suffered under military dictatorship. However, this was essentially due to a marked lack of preparation for the transition to a new mode of production where the logic of “techno-social networks” enabled algorithms and protocols to shape interaction even while open to reprogramming.
Thus, many publishers and broadcasters arrived at the digital moment unaware that this fundamental sea change had completely renatured the annals of its operations, as indeed its business model. Publishers, news managers, and communication teachers, who were blindly wedded to the logic of the Industrial age, remained tethered to traditional centralised control model of production and distribution of content, where professional organisations like media corporations or news agencies produce and distribute content.
This mass communication model was inherently a one-way communication paradigm, rooted in industrial-era media philosophy that empowers large organizations to dominate information production and distribution. Designed as product-driven systems, with minimal audience interaction, these platforms inherently limit engagement and prioritize gatekeepers—editors and producers—who control content selection and framing. This pre-digital mass communication structure, encompassing traditional TV, newspapers, and radio, favors broad, homogenised content for diverse audiences. Consequently, it shapes power dynamics, influences traditions of liberty and freedom, and significantly impacts democratic development.
Manuel Castells’s concept of “mass self-communication” accurately defines our digital age, highlighting a revolutionary shift in how information is created and disseminated. This dynamic process empowers individuals and groups to leverage the internet and social media platforms like X, YouTube, and TikTok, bypassing traditional media gatekeepers to share content with an unprecedented global reach. It brilliantly melds the extensive scope of mass communication with the deeply personal and grassroots autonomy of individual expression, thereby dismantling conventional structures through its inherently decentralized nature.
Fueled by Web 2.0 technologies, which champion user participation and networked communication, this paradigm allows anyone to produce and disseminate content that can resonate across the globe, fostering vibrant, two-way interactions previously unimaginable. From a single compelling post to a viral video, mass self-communication fundamentally redefines the pathway for marginalised voices to connect and reverberate worldwide, irrevocably transforming the landscape of public expression. However, while this democratising force disrupts established hierarchies and empowers individual narratives, its inherent autonomy is fiercely contested by the very real dangers of rampant commercialization, the proliferation of disinformation, and pervasive surveillance. These challenges critically undermine media credibility, jeopardize the project of peaceful communal coexistence, and present a formidable threat to the foundational tenets of democracy in the digital era.
In concrete terms, by the early 2000s, Nigeria has undergone a profound digital transformation, reshaping its media ecosystem and altering how information is produced, distributed, and consumed. The rapid proliferation of mobile technology has been a key driver of this transformation. Mobile phone penetration has grown exponentially, enabling even low-income and rural communities to access communication networks. Concurrently, the widespread availability of relatively affordable smartphones has facilitated internet access across diverse demographic and geographic segments of Nigerian society.
Social media platforms have become central to this transformation, with applications such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter (now X), Instagram, YouTube, and, more recently, TikTok redefining the flow of information. These platforms have not only changed how news is disseminated but also how it is sourced, verified, and contested. Nigeria now boasts over 122 million internet users, making it one of Africa’s most digitally connected societies. The implications of this connectivity extend far beyond convenience, profoundly reshaping the dynamics of journalism, civic engagement, and political mobilisation.
Opportunities created by digital journalism
The digital era has created significant opportunities for journalism in Nigeria, enabling innovation in reporting practices, audience engagement, and business models.
Expanded reach and reatime reporting: Digital technologies have vastly expanded the reach of journalism, allowing journalists to disseminate information instantaneously to both domestic and international audiences. The immediacy of digital platforms has redefined what constitutes “breaking news,” as stories can now be updated in real time, often as events unfold. This capability not only enhances the relevance of journalism but also elevates its potential to influence public opinion and policy discussions more swiftly and directly.
Democratisation of content creation: The digital landscape has significantly lowered the barriers to entry for content production. Ordinary citizens, equipped with smartphones and internet connectivity, can now produce and distribute information on a massive scale. This democratisation of content creation has given rise to citizen journalism, in which individuals document and report events from their communities, often filling gaps left by traditional media. A notable example was during the #EndSARS protests in 2020, where citizen-generated videos, tweets, and live streams played a central role in shaping narratives, mobilising support, and countering official disinformation. This phenomenon has expanded the diversity of voices in the public sphere and challenged the traditional gatekeeping role of legacy media.
Enriched storytelling and innovation: Digital tools have enabled Nigerian journalists to move beyond text-based reporting to adopt richer, more engaging storytelling formats. Multimedia journalism, which incorporates photographs, videos, infographics, and animations, has become increasingly prevalent. Data-driven investigations, made possible by access to digital datasets and analytical software, have enhanced the depth and rigor of reporting. Podcasts, livestreaming, and interactive platforms have also emerged as new ways to tell stories, attract audiences, and foster engagement. These formats allow journalists to experiment with narrative forms, deepen audience understanding, and build communities around their work.
Alternative economic models: The disruption of traditional advertising-based revenue models has forced media organisations to explore alternative business models suited to the digital age. Many outlets now supplement or replace advertising revenue with audience-driven approaches such as subscriptions, memberships, crowdfunding, and donor support. These models allow media organisations to diversify their income streams, reduce dependency on politically or commercially influenced advertisers, and strengthen editorial independence. They also create stronger bonds between journalists and their audiences by fostering a sense of ownership and participation among readers and viewers.
The broader significance
The opportunities presented by digital journalism in Nigeria extend beyond the media industry itself. They have fostered greater civic participation, increased transparency in governance, and contributed to more pluralistic and contested public debates. By enabling a wider range of actors to participate in the production and circulation of information, the digital era has deepened the democratization of the public sphere. At the same time, these developments have also posed significant challenges, including the spread of disinformation, the concentration of power in the hands of global technology platforms, and persistent inequalities in access and literacy. The digital era has thus constituted a double-edged transformation: opening unprecedented opportunities for journalism to fulfil its democratic functions while also creating new vulnerabilities and dependencies. Understanding and navigating these dynamics is crucial for safeguarding the future of journalism and ensuring that it remains a pillar of democracy in Nigeria.
Challenges of the digital era
As was indicated above, while the digital transformation of Nigeria’s media ecosystem brought significant opportunities, it also introduced profound and complex challenges that threaten the integrity, sustainability, and democratic functions of journalism.
Misinformation, disinformation, and conspiracy theories
One of the most pressing challenges in the digital age is the pervasive spread of misinformation, disinformation, and conspiracy theories, which frequently outpace the circulation of verified, credible information. The speed and reach of social media platforms facilitate the rapid dissemination of false or misleading content, undermining public understanding and trust in legitimate news sources. Political actors, economic elites, and other interest groups have increasingly weaponised these platforms to manipulate public opinion, discredit opponents, and distort electoral processes. The absence of robust fact-checking mechanisms at scale and the reliance on algorithmic amplification exacerbate the virality of false narratives, contributing to polarisation and eroding social cohesion.
Dependence on foreign-owned digital infrastructures
Nigerian media organisations remain heavily dependent on foreign-owned technology platforms such as Meta (Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp), Google (including YouTube), and X (formerly Twitter), which dominate the infrastructure for news distribution, content discoverability, and monetisation. These companies control the algorithms that determine which stories are visible to audiences, how widely they are shared, and what revenue streams are available to publishers. This dependency creates vulnerabilities, as changes in platform policies or algorithms — often designed with Western markets in mind — can unpredictably impact the reach and viability of Nigerian journalism. Moreover, the concentration of control in the hands of a few multinational corporations raises concerns about external manipulation, lack of accountability, and diminished local sovereignty over the information environment.
Inequalities in internet access and digital literacy
Significant disparities in internet access and digital literacy persist across Nigeria’s demographic and geographic landscape, compounding existing social and economic inequalities. Urban areas, particularly wealthier segments, enjoy relatively reliable connectivity and higher levels of digital literacy, whereas rural communities often face inadequate infrastructure, prohibitive costs, and limited skills to navigate digital spaces effectively. These disparities reinforce information gaps, leaving marginalized populations less able to access timely and accurate news and more vulnerable to manipulation and exclusion from civic discourse. Inadequate investment in public education and infrastructural development further exacerbates these divides, challenging the ideal of an inclusive and equitable public sphere.
Surveillance, hacking, and online harassment
The digital environment has also heightened risks for journalists, activists, and civil society actors, exposing them to increasing levels of surveillance, hacking, and harassment by both state and non-state actors. Governments have deployed sophisticated surveillance technologies to monitor online communications, identify critics, and suppress dissent, often under the guise of national security or public order. Journalists and whistleblowers have been targeted with phishing attacks, malware, and coordinated smear campaigns intended to intimidate and silence them. Online harassment — including threats of violence, gender-based abuse, and doxxing — has become an additional burden, particularly for women journalists, who face disproportionate and often sexualized forms of digital abuse. These threats compromise not only the safety and mental health of journalists but also the quality and independence of their work, as some may resort to self-censorship to avoid becoming targets.
Democratic pressures and contestations
Regulatory and legal constraints
The Nigerian state employs multiple legal and regulatory instruments to curtail journalistic freedom. These include excessive fines, license revocations, and content bans by the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), criminalisation of online dissent under the Cybercrime Act (2015), and efforts to regulate social media, exemplified by the proposed Social Media Bill and the Twitter ban in 2021.
Intimidation and violence
Journalists continue to face physical attacks, arbitrary arrests, legal harassment, and economic retaliation through advertising boycotts and punitive tax investigations. Ownership of media outlets by political and economic elites further compromises editorial independence and undermines journalistic integrity.
Civil society and advocacy
Civil society organisations, both domestic and international, play critical roles in defending press freedom. Institutions such as CJID, Media Rights Agenda, SERAP, Reporters Without Borders, and the Committee to Protect Journalists provide legal support, capacity building, and advocacy for media reforms.
Case studies of resistance and resilience
The recent history of Nigerian journalism is marked by episodes that reveal both the vulnerabilities of the press to political and structural pressures and its capacity for resilience, adaptation, and innovation. These case studies exemplify how journalists, citizens, and media organisations have contested power, navigated constraints, and reasserted the democratic functions of journalism in the face of adversity.
The #EndSARS protests (2020)
The nationwide protests against police brutality in October 2020, popularly known as the #EndSARS movement, offered a compelling illustration of citizen-led journalism and the transformative potential of digital platforms. In response to widespread abuses by the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), young Nigerians mobilised online and offline to demand accountability and systemic reform. Citizen journalists and ordinary social media users played a central role in documenting the protests, streaming live videos, posting real-time updates, and amplifying voices from the streets.
These citizen-led efforts often countered state-controlled narratives propagated by official media channels, which initially downplayed the scale of the protests or framed them in delegitimising terms. The widespread circulation of videos from the Lekki Toll Gate shooting, in particular, challenged the state’s attempts to deny responsibility and galvanised international attention. Traditional media outlets, initially hesitant due to government pressure and fear of reprisal, were eventually compelled to engage with and report more critically on the movement. The #EndSARS protests thus underscored how citizen journalism and digital activism can both supplement and pressure professional journalism to fulfil its democratic mandate.
Investigative journalism by Premium Times
The investigative reporting work of Premium Times, an independent Nigerian online newspaper, exemplifies the enduring watchdog role of journalism in holding power to account. Since its establishment, Premium Times has conducted in-depth investigations that have exposed high-level corruption, military abuses, environmental degradation, and human rights violations. Notable investigations have revealed mismanagement of public funds, procurement fraud in the military, and violations of the rules of engagement in counterinsurgency operations against Boko Haram.
These exposés have often come at a significant cost. Journalists at Premium Times have faced legal threats, intimidation, surveillance, and harassment by state actors seeking to suppress their work. Nevertheless, the publication has persisted, leveraging legal advocacy, public support, and transnational partnerships to sustain its reporting. Premium Times demonstrates how investigative journalism can persist even in hostile environments, fostering transparency and accountability despite systemic resistance.
The 2021 twitter ban
In June 2021, the Nigerian government announced an indefinite suspension of Twitter after the platform removed a tweet by President Muhammadu Buhari that was deemed to violate its policies. The ban highlighted the state’s growing discomfort with losing control over digital narratives and its willingness to curtail access to platforms perceived as threatening to its authority.
The suspension of Twitter raised critical questions about digital sovereignty, freedom of expression, and the responsibilities of global technology companies operating in authoritarian or semi-authoritarian contexts. The ban also revealed the state’s instrumental use of regulatory power to punish dissent while exposing the dependence of Nigerian journalists and citizens on global digital infrastructures for information dissemination and public discourse. Despite the ban, many Nigerians circumvented restrictions using virtual private networks (VPNs), underscoring the limits of state control in the digital age and the ingenuity of users committed to maintaining access to open communication channels.
Ongoing disputes between Nigerian regulators and Meta
More recent developments underscore the intensifying contest between Nigerian regulators and global technology companies over issues of governance, accountability, and market power. Ongoing legal disputes between Nigerian authorities and Meta (the parent company of Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp) centre on alleged violations of data privacy regulations, inadequate content moderation practices, and anticompetitive behaviours.
These conflicts reflect broader global tensions over the governance of digital platforms and the extent to which national governments can or should assert sovereignty over transnational technology companies. For Nigerian journalism, these disputes are consequential because they shape the regulatory and operational environment within which news organisations operate. Decisions about content moderation, data privacy, and algorithmic transparency by companies like Meta directly affect how journalism is produced, distributed, and monetised in Nigeria. At the same time, the Nigerian state’s regulatory approach raises concerns about whether such interventions genuinely promote public interest goals or primarily serve to consolidate political control over digital spaces.
Disinformation in the 2024 #EndBadGovernance protests
In August 2024, protests against rising economic hardship under the banner #EndBadGovernance took a dramatic turn when some demonstrators were seen waving Russian flags. Investigations by DUBAWA revealed that Telegram channels and TikTok influencers—linked to a so-called “African Initiative” with pro-Russian messaging—disseminated talking points encouraging the use of the symbol. In one alarming development, at least 76 individuals (including 30 minors) were arrested and charged with treason or coup plotting after reportedly joining WhatsApp and Telegram “Zanga-Zanga” groups and displaying the flags .
This incident illustrates how foreign disinformation campaigns can infiltrate grassroots movements, influence public symbolism, and even compromise civil liberties. It further underscores the importance of platform-level interventions, institutional fact-checking, and journalistic vigilance in countering malign external influences on domestic politics.
The future of Nigerian journalism: Possibilities and perils
The future of Nigerian journalism stands at a pivotal juncture, where technological innovation, political contestation, and civic transformation intersect. Emerging trends and structural challenges are likely to shape its trajectory in the coming years, presenting both opportunities to strengthen its democratic role and risks that threaten to undermine its autonomy, credibility, and resilience.
Artificial intelligence and automation in newsrooms
One of the most significant developments facing journalism globally—and increasingly in Nigeria—is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and automation into newsroom workflows. AI-driven tools offer substantial opportunities to enhance efficiency, improve content moderation, support data-driven investigations, and personalise news delivery. Automated systems can facilitate tasks such as transcription, fact-checking, and even content generation, freeing journalists to focus on higher-order editorial functions.
However, the adoption of AI in journalism raises profound concerns. Algorithmic bias embedded in AI systems can distort content prioritisation and marginalise already underrepresented voices. Over-reliance on automation risks eroding editorial judgment and journalistic autonomy, potentially reducing human oversight over critical aspects of news production. Moreover, the opaque decision-making processes of AI systems can undermine transparency and accountability in editorial practices. Nigerian newsrooms will need to strike a balance between harnessing the benefits of AI and safeguarding ethical standards, diversity, and independence.
Platform sovereignty and regulatory debates
Another defining trend is the intensifying debate over digital platform sovereignty. Across Africa, governments have begun to assert their regulatory authority over global technology companies that control a significant portion of the region’s digital infrastructure. In Nigeria, this trend has manifested in disputes with companies such as Meta and Twitter (now X) over issues ranging from data privacy and content moderation to taxation and competition policy.
On one hand, the push for platform sovereignty represents an opportunity for African states to reclaim control over their digital ecosystems, ensuring that global platforms operate in ways that respect local laws, cultures, and democratic norms. On the other hand, poorly designed or politically motivated regulations risk entrenching censorship, chilling dissent, and curtailing the very freedoms journalism seeks to defend. The future of Nigerian journalism depends in part on the ability of regulators to craft balanced frameworks that promote accountability without stifling press freedom or innovation.
Expansion of fact-checking and accountability initiatives
The rise of disinformation and misinformation has spurred the growth of fact-checking initiatives, which play a critical role in safeguarding the information environment. Platforms such as DUBAWA, Africa Check, and CJID’s DAIDAC Collective exemplify the increasing institutionalisation of fact-checking in Nigeria and the region. These initiatives contribute to debunking falsehoods, enhancing media credibility, and fostering a culture of accountability.
The expansion of fact-checking reflects a growing recognition of the need for localised approaches to combating information disorder, rooted in context-sensitive understandings of how false narratives emerge and spread. Going forward, the challenge will be to ensure the sustainability of these initiatives, protect their independence, and integrate their findings more systematically into mainstream journalism and public discourse.
Cross-border collaborative journalism
The future of Nigerian journalism is also likely to be shaped by an increase in cross-border collaborations. Initiatives such as the African Investigative Journalism Conference (AIJC) and the Global Investigative Journalism Network (GIJN) have fostered transnational networks of journalists who share resources, methodologies, and stories that transcend national boundaries.
Such collaborations enhance the capacity of journalists to tackle complex issues—such as organised crime, corruption, environmental degradation, and human rights abuses—that are often transnational. They also amplify African voices in global media governance debates and contribute to building a more connected, robust investigative journalism culture.
Media literacy and institutional resilience
Beyond technological and regulatory developments, the resilience of Nigerian journalism will depend critically on investments in media literacy and institutional strengthening.
Promoting media literacy
In an era characterised by information abundance and disinformation, equipping citizens with the skills to assess media content critically is essential. Media literacy fosters an informed and discerning public capable of navigating complex and often polarised information environments. It also enhances accountability by enabling audiences to demand higher standards from media producers and to resist manipulation by political or commercial interests. Initiatives to embed media literacy in school curricula, community programs, and public campaigns will be key to building an information-resilient citizenry.
Strengthening journalism institutions
Institutional resilience is equally vital. Developing sustainable business models that reduce reliance on state patronage or politically aligned advertisers can enhance editorial independence and financial viability. This may involve diversifying revenue streams through subscriptions, memberships, philanthropic support, and partnerships.
Moreover, investment in journalist safety and well-being—including legal protections, insurance schemes, and mental health support—is critical to countering the threats of harassment, violence, and precarious working conditions. Establishing innovation hubs and training programs that foster experimentation with new formats and technologies can also help newsrooms adapt to evolving audience needs and technological realities.
Navigating possibilities and perils
The emerging trends identified here highlight the dual nature of the challenges and opportunities facing Nigerian journalism. The integration of AI can augment journalistic productivity, but it can also undermine autonomy if not carefully managed. Asserting platform sovereignty can democratise digital governance but also serve as a pretext for repression if misapplied. Expanding fact-checking and collaborative journalism can strengthen information integrity but also require careful safeguarding of independence and sustainability.
Ultimately, the future of Nigerian journalism will be determined by how effectively stakeholders—including journalists, media owners, regulators, civil society actors, educators, and audiences—navigate these possibilities and perils. Sustained commitment to media freedom, institutional innovation, and democratic accountability will be indispensable to ensuring that journalism continues to serve as a pillar of Nigeria’s democratic experiment.
Afterthought: I want to leave you with two challenges. One, it will be gratifying if the faculty of communication and media studies can accept our invitation to collaborate on an industry-academia research and development project on seeking paths to resolving the current crippling business model conundrum in the industry. Secondly, to jointly explore, further, the still concealed nuggets of information on the influence of Ajayi Crowther on the cultural subsoil of West African Journalism.
I thank you for the opportunity of this lecture and I hope it will help deepen the relationship with this faculty, through human resource and media product exchanges, as well as through substantive project collaborations. Ese modupe ooo.
